Stranger than fiction............

 

Holger Danskes Briller trough, south-facing slope at the western end of the eastern lake.  The two huge rockfall avalanche ramparts are very prominent.......

In my novel "Icefall Zero", set in East Greenland ion 1962,  one of the critical incidents is a sudden rock avalanche which overwhelms and almost kills two of the heroes, in a glacial trough containing two large lakes.  The trough carried diffluent ice from the huge glacier that once flowed along Nordvestfjord. (See some recent posts.........)

When we were in East Greenland in 1962 we never got a good look at the trough because of bad weather, and its slopes were mostly enveloped in low cloud. Our maps and air pohotos were also of very limited use.  When I wrote the novel in 2014 the information was not much better, and satellite images of the area were of poor quality, partly because the details of the valley sides were often lost in deep shadow.  But I thought the steep slopes looked unstable, especially in the middle section of the trough, where there are some high buttresses and peaks over 1000 m high.

So I invented my rock avalanche and described its effects in graphic detail in the story..........

Imagine my surprise when I examined the new Bing / TomTom satellite imagery  some weeks ago and discovered amazing detail of the slopes in the trough, especially on the sunny (south facing) flank.  There are multiple gullies on the cliff face, with long histories of intermittent rockfalls and probably snow avalanches too.  But there are two especially prominent features, characterised by huge ridges or ramparts at their bottom ends.  These are much more likely to have been the result of single sudden catastrophic slope failures.  Such features are very common in NW Iceland too, beneath steep basalt cliffs subject to pressure release following deglaciation.

Each of the ramparts is about 200m wide.  On the satellite imagery the ramparts and upslope scree slopes have slightly different colourations, suggesting to me that the eastern one is somewhat youngerc than the western one.  How recent were these slope collapses?  At the moment, the jury is still out, but I would hazard a guess and suggest that they may be very recent, from within living memory.  In 1962, maybe.....??

I would not have liked to be anywhere in the vicinity when either one of these slope failures actually happened........

More on Cunnington's rock samples and slides

Two bits of "Lower Palaeozoic sandstone" found in Barrow 41, about a mile from Stonehenge.  The larger one is a cobble, about 10 cm long.

This is an unpublished catalogue recently placed on Academia -- and therefore not accessible to everybody.  It looks as if it is a prelude to a longer and more detailed paper due to be published next year by the Ixer / Bevins duo.  

https://www.academia.edu/144337293/Cunningtons_Stonehenge_rocks_an_archive_of_the_thin_section_data

Cunnington's Stonehenge rocks: an archive of the thin section data.
By Robert Ixer
referring to:  William Cunnington Stonehenge rock thin sections catalogue

Robert Ixer and Richard Bevins

The authors have examined 33 specimens -- thin section slides and hand specimens.  They are from a collection of 460 fragments (surface finds) collected in the period 1878-1881from excavations, chance finds in the turf, in waggon ruts etc in the Stonehenge landscape.  They are all "foreign rocks" -- so sarsen finds are excluded. (I wonder how many other erratic sandstone finds were excluded too, since in muddy field conditions they are not that easy for a non-specialist to differentiate from sarsen fragments......)  Most of the samples are as expected from the "known groups" of rock types represented at Stonehenge, but there were some "odd rocks" as well -- the authors mention a pyrite or marcasite sample which is not analysed here.

Quote:

The first important result is that all the major lithological groups and some minor groups are present and in their relative ‘correct’ (i.e. conforming to other collections) proportions and so this collection is comparable to all others that have been described. This is another confirmation that all collections of bluestone debitage from the Stonehenge Landscape comprise the same limited range of rock types. Rock names given by earlier workers, including Harrison and colleagues, have been equated with Ixer and Bevins’ 21 st century nomenclature, so eliminating incorrect or obsolete rock names. This is important as the plethora of outdated and disused rock names has been used by some to suggest that the range of bluestone rock types is far wider than it really is, in order to promote the belief that the debitage in the Stonehenge Landscape comprises random glacial erratics. 

This is the same tired old point from Ixer and Bevins -- in spite of having, over and again, demonstrated in their own papers that in all of the "groups" that they have examined there are ouitliers and exceptions that demonstrate multiple provenances.   In addition, they presume to know the makeup of erratic or fereign stone types in the Stonehenge landscape, in spite of the fact that 50% of the area within the circumference of the stone monument has never been excavated. That is very unwise........

The authors claim that seven "rhyolitic tuffs" in the collection are "clearly" from Craig Rhosyfelin, and they persist with this pretence whilst recognising that there are at least three different textures (three of them decribed as Jovian, Snowflake and Zebra textures).  Quote:  "Despite the range of rhyolitc lithologies suggested by Harrison et al (1979) all are very typical material from Craig Rhosyfelin...."  That sounds more like wishful thinking than science, and there is no way that this claim can be accepted.

In Table 1, where all of the samples are listed and allocated to the Ixer/Bevins groups, there is clear evidence of "forcing" lithologically different samples into predetermined groups.  Nothing surprising there, then........

There follows a group of Appendices with full descriptions of the samples and hand specimens, accompanied by useful photos.  Each numbered sample is allocated a predetermined category, although it is obvious that some are reasonable "fits" and others are not.

Most of the fragments examined are very small, but sample S52 weighs over 74 g.  It is difficult to see whether this is a discrete cobble or a knock-off from one or another of the Stonehenge orthostats -- and Ixer and Bevins have traditionally ignored this issue in their long string of analytical lithology papers.

Appendix 4 is interesting, referring to S1 as a lump of "Lower Palaeozoic sandstone" (about 500g in weight) found in Barrow 41, about a mile from Stonehenge.  There are five pieces.  Sample S69 is given the same label, although the term "Lower Palaeozoic sandstone" is so broad that it must incorporate many thousands of different lithologies and tells us nothing worthwhile about provenances.

Sample S74 is referred to as "volcanic with sub-planar texture" -- covering a multitude of sins.  Within Dacite Group B there is a large group and a smaller "sub-group", and it is clear from the cited literature that within the Stonehenge debitage collections there are "related" rock types from a large range of different provenances.

Sample S57 is described as "anomalous" but belonging to Dacite Group D, which is not reporesented in the othostat group of bluestones.  There are also two pieces of Greensand in sample 61.  These are also deemed to be anomalous and somewhat inconvenient. 

Appendix 6 deals with the Altar Stone -- and sample S45 in particular.  This is worth repeating:

Sample S45

The thin section has Altar Stone Stonehenge scratched onto it and is slightly thick in the centre; the 
Canada Balsam has yellowed with age. A uniform, fine-grained (fine sand ≤187 µm grain size), 
carbonate-cemented, poorly developed planar laminated sandstone is a dusky yellow (5Y 7/4 on the 
Geological Society of America Rock-color chart). Short and thin, 0.1 mm thick, heavy mineral bands are 
present and phyllosilicate-rich layers are more limonite stained. The centre of the slide is more 
limonite-stained than the edges but this might be a thickness effect. A sinuous ‘stylolitic’ band lies at a 
high angle to the laminae. Approximately 50% of the section is cloudy, suggesting the presence of 
carbonate.

Microscopical description of the thin section 

A fine-grained, well-cemented, calcareous sandstone. The planar fabric is picked out by heavy mineral 
and by phyllosilicate (muscovite, biotite, chlorite) bands/laminae, the latter are slightly more limonite- 
stained than most of the rock. Clasts display a severely restricted size range and are dominated by 
monocrystalline, sub-angular to sub-rounded quartz grains; quartz and feldspars show elongation 
within the planar fabric. Smaller heavy mineral grains are rounded, especially the opaques. In addtion 
to quartz, plagioclase, untwinned feldspar, muscovite, biotite and chlorite are the main silicates; rock 
clasts are common and are internally very fine-grained and appear to be clay-rich. Accessory minerals 
include opaques, zircon, tourmaline, apatite, probable rutile and garnet and possible amphibole. 
Monocrystalline quartz shows uniform extinction and ‘float’ within the carbonate cement. Where 
quartz grains touch contacts are sharp and there is no overgrowth or embayment. Unaltered, 
polysynthetically twinned plagioclase is more abundant than slightly altered pale brown plagioclase 
(altering to fine-grained white mica). Untwinned feldspar is pale brown and cloudy and may include 
potassium feldspar. Microcline was not recognised. 

Phyllosilicates are abundant and in order of decreasing abundance are muscovite, biotite and chlorite. 
All three form laths lying within the main fabric but also, rarely, occur at high angles to that fabric; all 
show kinking about quartz and feldspar grains. Some muscovite laths show splaying at their ends and 
some biotite is altered to chlorite. Chlorite also is present as, or within, fine-grained rock clasts. 
Chlorite with deep blue-green colours may be pumpellyite. 
Heavy mineral bands are quite broad and are dominated by rounded opaques and rounded to 
subhedral zircon, murky green-brown tourmaline, rounded to lath-shaped apatite and elongated 
brown rutile; rounded garnet and possible amphibole are also present. 
Rock clasts, many are rounded, are widespread and all are internally very fine-grained. Many appear to 
be phyllosilicate/clay rich or fine-grained micrite but some fine-grained polycrystalline quartz, 
including ‘chert’, is present. Feldspar-rich rocks, including graphic granite are very rare. 
Minor amounts of kaolinite, some associated with muscovite, is a very local cement. The main cement 
is carbonate; some is poikoblastic calcite. Two generations of cement may be present, namely an 
earlier high relief, brownish carbonate followed by clear, lower relief calcite. 

Earlier descriptions 

Cunnington (1884) recognised the presence of “micaceous sandstone” debitage and suggested that it 
might be the Altar Stone. Teall (1894) listed S45 within his “Grits and Sandstones”, suggesting that 
most “do not seem to be in any way remarkable”, while Judd (1902) noted that un-numbered Altar 
Stone was a micaceous sandstone but found with “other more micaceous sandstones”. Harrison et al. 
(1979) noted S 45 as “Fine sandstone, feldspathic, (0 06 mm) well-graded, carbonate cement; micas 
common, and heavy minerals conspicuous (garnet, tourmaline, zircon)”. 

There has been general agreement that S45 is from the Altar Stone, as confirmed by the present study. The Altar Stone has  been described in a number of papers, notably Ixer and Turner (2006), Ixer and Bevins (2013a), Ixer et al. (2019; 2020) Bevins et al. (2020a, b; 2022, 2023a, b) and Clarke et al. (2024).

-----------

We clearly have not heard the last word on the Altar Stone! This is specialist stuff, but one component in the debate is the presence of garnet in sample 45 -- which may or may not indicate that Sample 45 did indeed come from the famous stone which is now deemed -- by some -- to have come from Scotland.

There is still doubt as to where the mysterious slide called Wilts 277 came from:

https://brian-mountainman.blogspot.com/2018/12/new-paper-on-altar-stone-or-is-it.html

Was it really from the Altar Stone?  .... and the "garnet problem" is another interesting one for geologists to sort out:

https://brian-mountainman.blogspot.com/2023/11/new-altar-stone-paper-professional.html

All in all, this is a welcome addition to the literature, but the authors are so stuck in their ruling hypothesis of a small number of rock types quarried in selected and sacred places that they fail to see the obvious conclusion coming from their own researches -- namely that there are so many exceptions, anomalies and outliers in the collections of Stonehenge fragments that they are clearly from multiple provenances, probably in the west. Most if not all of these locations are unknown.  It follows that the erratics were probably introduced into the Stonehenge landscape by glacier ice.

  

A classic lateral moraine in Kjove Land, East Greenland

 

Thanks to the new Bing satellite imagery, we can see extraordinary detail in Kjove land, East Greenland -- tha area dealt with in some previous posts.  Note the huge lateral moraine running along the mountainside to the east of the Holger Danskes Briller ice contact delta.  I have marked the key features on the above image.  In 1962 we were unable to examine this area in detail, as we had our work cut out in the examinations and analysis of the Gurreholmsdal raised delta complex a few km to the east.  Anyway, the moraine has a series of cosmogenic dates reported in the recent paper by Kelly et al, ranging from c 15,000 yrs BP to c 12,000 yrs BP.  So the moraine is assigned to the "older moraine complex" roughly coinciding with Zone I or Older Dryas in the old terminology.  

The diffluent glacier snout was grounded for at least 4 km to the east iof the trough exit, and must have been afloat in the Nordostbugt area.  The 134m shoreline is traceable downslope of the morainic ridge, but its precise relationship with raised marine deposits is still to be determined.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2025.109531

PS.  The eastern lake of the Holger Danskes Briller is now named Margaret Lambert Sø.  You can see the eastern edge of the lake in the image above.

Kjove Land -- ice flow west to east, or east to west?

New satellite image showing with great clarity the morainic ridge remnants in the vicinity of Hjörnemoraene (Corner Moraine) in Kjove Land.  It is clear from this evidence that a diffluent lobe of ice flowed down from the interior of the Pythagoras Massif.  This was probably contemporaneous with ice from the main Nordvestfjord Glacier spilling eastwards across Syd Kap Bay and possibly terminating at a floating ice edge near Nordostbugt.

Map of raised marine features in Kjove Land, from our 1965 paper.  With no satellite imagery at our disposal, we failed to recognise the evidence for the Pythagoras Bjerg diffluent ice lobe.

A fascinating new paper has been published:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379125003518?via%3Dihub

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2025.109531


Relative summer temperature changes from glacial fluctuations in the Scoresby Sund region, Central East Greenland, during late-glacial time (2025) 
Meredith A. Kelly, Thomas V. Lowell, Brenda L. Hall, Laura B. Levy, Colby A. Smith, Katherine Salamido, Roseanne Schwartz and Jennifer A. Howley
Quaternary Science Reviews
Volume 367, 1 November 2025, 109531

Abstract

Understanding climate conditions in the mid-to-high-latitude North Atlantic region during late-glacial time can provide valuable information to test hypotheses concerning the mechanisms of climate change that ended the last glacial period. Glaciers (particularly mountain glaciers) are sensitive recorders of summer temperature change because of its influence on the ablation season, snowline elevation and, hence, glacier length. Here, we develop a record of glacial fluctuations in the Scoresby Sund region in Central East Greenland and use these data to infer the timing and pattern of summer temperature changes in the mid-to-high-latitude North Atlantic region. We present 64 new 10Be ages of glacial landforms and remap and recalculate an additional 65 10Be ages from prior work in the region. Even with boulders with inherited nuclides in some of the datasets, a two-step pattern of glacial fluctuations is apparent, with an outer moraine dating to ∼14.0–12.8 ka, an inner moraine dating to ∼11.7–11.3 ka, and ice retreat in the time between moraine deposition. A comparison of these data with 10Be chronologies of mountain glacier fluctuations in Northeast Greenland, Svalbard, Norway and Scotland, shows a consistent pattern throughout the mid-to-high-latitude North Atlantic region of summer cooling and warming during late-glacial time.

Quote:

In both Holger Danskes Briller and Kjove Land, prominent lateral moraines demarcate a relatively young landscape (proximal to the moraines) from this older, more weathered landscape (distal to the moraines). Lateral moraines occur on both walls of Holger Danskes Briller and mark the margins of a glacier that filled the valley and flowed into Nordostbugt (Fig. 3, Fig. 6). On the right-lateral (south) valley wall, these moraines are contiguous with moraines in Kjoveland that mark the left-lateral margin of an ice-sheet outlet that filled Nordvestfjord. All these moraines are relatively high relief and have high surface boulder concentrations. Based on the geomorphology and elevations of the highest elevation lateral moraines in Holger Danskes Briller (both ∼300 m asl) and Kjoveland (∼260–280 m asl), we assume that they were deposited at the same time. 10Be ages of thirteen boulders on these highest elevation moraines are ∼11.8–18.9 ka. Multiple lateral moraines occur on the slopes below the highest moraines. We dated five boulders on lower elevation moraines (∼190–240 m asl) in Kjoveland. Four ages are ∼12.1–16.4 ka and one (∼30.4 ± 1.1 ka, MKG-71) is a statistical outlier. Based on their prominence and position at a weathering boundary, we consider all of these landforms to be associated with the outer moraine set. They consist entirely of lateral moraines and lack terminal features, possibly because the ice terminated offshore. The peak age of the moraines is ∼12.2 ka (n = 17) and the youngest age is ∼11.8 ± 0.4 ka (MKG-179)(Fig. 6).

In contrast, on the Holger Danskes Briller valley floor, an ice-contact delta is spectacularly preserved, with a steep and boulder-covered ice-contact slope and kettles and meltwater channels on its surface (Fig. 3E). The upper delta surface is at ∼101 m asl. 10Be ages of seven boulders on the delta are ∼11.6–15.3 ka with a peak age of ∼11.7 ka (n = 7) and youngest age of ∼11.6 ± 0.3 ka (MKG-172)(Fig. 6). Given the substantial distance between inferred minimum terminal ice positions of the outer moraines and this ice-contact delta, as well as the fact that the delta grades to 101 m asl, well-below the 135 m asl sea level associated with at least one outer moraine in Gurreholm Dal, we conclude that the delta is associated with the inner moraine set.

----------------

The paper contains some fascinatingf material, particularly withy respect to the cosmogenic dating of assorted morainic features.  This is a wonderful image of the HDB ice-contact delta, associated with a sea level at 101m:

Because of its association with a sea level at 101m, the authors suggest that the HDB feature is one of the "inner moraines", linked in age (c 11,000 yrs BP) and origin to some of the moraines associated with the glaciers in the Schuchert Valley.

However, in trying to understand the complexities of the morainic topography of the area around Hjörnemoraene, I think the authors have missed the point that there was (1) a diffluent ice lobe coming from the Pythagoras Bjerg plateau, with a loop of moraines around 270m asl; (2) a series of lateral moraines at a lower level, around 200 - 190 m asl, associated with the Nordvestfjord outlet glacier; and (3) an intervening "proglacial" strip of land characterised by older morainic deposits and some washed surfaces. This can be picked up rather clearly on Figure 6 of the article:

Sampling point 83, labelled as "distal to moraines" should have been labelled "proximal to moraines" because it is inside the diffluent glacier morainic loop.  This makes sense, because the date (13,600 yrs BP) is younger than some of those obtained from boulders on the moraines themselves.

The highest ridge of lateral moraine associated with the Nordvestfjord Glacier at c 200m, near Hjörnemoraene.  Additional annotations by me -- on the authors' Fig 3.

My annotations on another of the authors' photos, in Fig 3 of the article. This is a close-up of the same ridge featured in the photo above.

All in all, a somewhat messy situation, with the morainic features of Kjove Land interpreted in three different ways.  In 1965 David Sugden and I interpreted the features as associated with two glacier retreat stages or readvances, coinciding with sea-level stillstands at 134m and 101m.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262414669_The_Raised_Marine_Features_of_Kjove_Land_East_Greenland

We has no sophisticated dating techniques available to us in 1962, but we used shell faunas in the Gurreholmsdal raised delta staircase in our interpretations, and our estimates of the nature of the morainic and delta features and their ages were not far wide of the mark.

In some of the early papers on the Milne Land Stage it was assumed that the Kjove Land and Pythagoras Bjerg moraines were associated with an extended Schuchert Glacier, flowing down the Schuchertv Valley and then pushing into Hall Bredning and westwards across Syd Kap Bay.  That idea does not seem to be supported by any of the more recent papers.  The third interpretation, involving a lobe of diffluent ice pushing south-eastwards from the plateau of Pythagoras Bjerg, is one I am increasingly attracted by, as seen in assorted posts on this blog.

I think the landforms of the plateau suggest a long history of diffluent ice flow, maybe during several distinct glaciations.   But the most recent ice flow, associated with the creation of two sets of prominent morainic ridges above Hjörnemoraene, appears to have been associated with the Late Glacial readvance that occurred around 13,000 years ago.

The new work -- associated with an extensive cosmogenic dating programme -- confirms that the late-glacial readvance phases here were not very closely synchronised with the old Zone I (cold) >> Zone II / Allerodn (warmer) >> Zone III (cold) sequence.   Everything here in East Greenland seems to have been slightly out of step, for reasons still to be properly elucidated.

The "Younger Dryas Question" has still not been satisfactorily answered.......

The Nordvestfjord "bench"

I found another striking image of the bench on the north side of Nordvestfjord while going through my vast air photo collection.  It shows the feature with great clarity -- looking from NW towards SE.  In the far distance we can see Scoresbysund and Jameson Land.  

The bench is referred to as a relict planation feature -- and labelled as part of the LPS or lower planation surface by Bonow and Japsen.  If the dissected plateau edge coincides with the outcrop of a basaltic layer, we can argue for some geological control.  Bonow and Japsen argue that there is an erosion surface that passes beneath the basalt -- they refer to this as an "etchplain".   They claim thast the feature must have formed later than mid-Miocene..........

But the extent of ice moulding is also very striking.  All in all, this has to be a composite feature owing its origin to multiple changes of climate over a vast stretch of geological time.   

 

Nordvestfjord -- a new image

 

This is a new (2025) Bing image of the whole of Nordvestfjord -- the innermost part of the Scoresbysund fjord complex.

There is enormous detail -- click to enlarge.

Nordvestfjord middle reaches

 

 I rediscovered the above B/W photo in my office the other day -- it's one of the old Geodetic Institute photos that we used in our 1962 expedition to the Scoresbysund area of East Greenland.  I have speculated about this before, but the most striking feature of the photo is the extraordinary "break"on the fjord side  between  a lower relatively gentle slope of highly ice-scoured bedrock and an upper section which we can refer to as a dissected plateau edge.  If we like, we can refer to this junction as a "trim line" because it must separate a lower heavily glaciated landscape from an upper zone which was at one time ice-free.

As we move down the fjord this lower slope with a modest gradient gradually disappears, to be replaced by vertical (and in places overhanging) cliffs, especially on the outside of bends, where the intensity of glacial erosion has been at its greatest.  This is related to a gradual increase in glacier discharge as one passes from the middle trough to the lower or outer trough.  Those areas of steep fjord sides should be the ones where trough depth is at its greatest -- indeed there are water depths of over 1500m as one approaches the outer fjord threshold, but the deepest continuous stretch in the fjord long profile (with a depth of over 1400m) is a 30 km stretch which coincides with relatively gentle fjordsides as in th photos above.  That's a bit of a puzzle........

What is the glaciological explanation of this phenomenon?  This is not your classic U-shaped fjord or outlet glacier trough cross profile. And why do we not see this "middle fjord bench" in Sognefjord in Norway,  and in many of the other big fjord systems of the Northern Hemisphere?  Are we seeing evidence here of the gradual transition, in a brutalised dendritic fjord system, from areal scouring to highly concentrated linear erosion?  Is this all explained by reference to glacier thermal regime, with a transition from cold-based ice to warm-based ice?

Two other possibilities.  The lower, gentle, slope segments might be remnants of an ancient fluvially -influenced landscape, possibly dating back to pre-glacial times?  I don't like that theory, since it does not adequately explain the sudden break of slope at the "trim line".  The other possibility is that the "trim line" is a geologically controlled feature. coinciding with the junction between relatively hard rocks and relatively soft ones.  I have looked at the geological map for the area, and there is no obvious geological boundary -- all of the rocks in the area are described as belonging to the basement complex -- crystalline or metamorphic rocks, and granite intrusions influenced by Caledonian orogeny.  However, in some parts of the East Greenland fjord country thick basalts lie on top of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, providing at least a partial explanation for the bench on the fjordside, with steep slopes above and gentler slopes below.

In a significant research article, Bonow and Japsen (2021)  attribute many of the features of the fjordland landscape to the existence of two peneplains -- with an upper surface coinciding with the extensive plateaux which support multiple small ice caps today, and a lower peneplain which reveals itself in fjordside "benches" such as those desctibed above. 

Bonow & Japsen 2021: GEUS Bulletin 45 (1). 5297. https://doi.org/10.34194/geusb.v45.5297

The authors say:  The low-relief Upper Planation Surface (UPS; c. 2 km above sea level) cuts across basement and Palaeogene basalts, indicating that it was graded to base level defined by the Atlantic Ocean in post-basalt times and subsequently uplifted. The UPS formed prior to the deposition of mid-Miocene lavas that rest on it, south of the study area. In the interior basement terrains, the Lower Planation Surface (LPS) forms fluvial valley benches at c. 1 km above sea level, incised below the UPS. The LPS is thus younger than the UPS, which implies that it formed post mid-Miocene. Towards the coast, the valley benches merge to form a coherent surface that defines flat-topped mountains. This shows that the LPS was graded to near sea level and was subsequently uplifted.

Here is another photo of the upper reach of Nordvestfjord, taken from above the snout of Daugaard-Jensens Gletscher.  It also shows the relatively gentle gradients of the fjordside slopes and the deeply scoured nature of the whole of the ice-free landscape.

See these articles:

Nordvestfjord: a major East Greenland fjord system
J. A. DOWDESWELL, C. L. BATCHELOR, K. A. HOGAN & H.-W. SCHENKE

2015, Geol Soc of London

HARBOR, J. M. 1992. Numerical modelling of the development of U-shaped valleys by glacial erosion. Bulletin Geological Society of America, 104, 1364-1375

For the contrast between the middle fjord and the outer fjord, see these photos of the west side of Nordvestfjord, taken from near Syd Kap and the flank of Pythagoras Bjerg:

..... and this one, which is seriously spectacular.  I haven't been able to discover where exactly it was taken, but it reminds me of the fjord wall near "Hell's Bells" (as we called it), between Syd Kap and the diffluent trough occupied by the twin lakes of Holger Danskes Briller.

The fjord walls on the west side of this outer zone are steeper than in the inner zone, and are sustantially more broken up as a result of complex interactions between the main Nordvestfjord glacier and abundant tributary glaciers flowing from ice caps and from smaller "alpine" glacier catchments.

PS.

There is amazing new 2025 satellite coverage of this area available via Bing Maps. Just discovered it.  
Here we see the same area as featured at the head of this post.

Asymmetric cross profile of Nordvestfjord trough are clearly seen in the middle section.

The is the relationship between the upper planation surface and the lower one, according to Bonow and Japsen:

This photo shoes the various elements in Gåseland.  The photo below shows Nordvestfjord, in its middle section:

The section shown in the photo at the head of this post is in the distance, to the right of top centre.  The authors clearly see the plateau supporting the small ice cap as a part of the UPS, and the lower fjordside slopes as part of the LPS.  If there is one criticidm I have of the paper by Bonow and Japsen, it is that they are too preoccupied with "inherited features" and ancient landscapes, and do not pay sufficient  attention to glaciology and glacial erosional features.  Of course, every landscape tells a multitude of stories........